PB2: Conventionality in the Scientific Academic Genre

Alex O’Brien

Prof. Schranck

Writ 2

24 August 2016

Unit 2 PB2: Conventionality in the Scientific Academic Genre

Conventionality is the universal constant that strings all genres together while making each one distinct. And like all genres, academia contains several key conventions meant to obtain certain responses from specific audiences. In the previous PB, a few commonly-found conventions of academic genres in the scientific discipline were covered in two scientific journal articles with a similar topic. In addition, and as previously discussed, scientific conventions usually seek a specific kind of response among audiences more specialized in the respective field. In this PB, the functions of a third article’s (in the same genre) conventions of an introductory abstract, academic language and experimental study will be explored in greater detail, along with their rhetorical usages.

The abstract serves as a brief summary of the paper (in this case, the scientific article) written for the reader(s), and provides the essential points of a study, so that the audience may gain a ‘feel’ for the work. Typically, the abstract acts similarly to a table of contents, and written so that readers do not have to read the article’s entirety. For audience members who only wish to gain a gist of the scientific content, the abstract simply serves as a shortened summary of the article. In the third article, titled, “An epigenetic clock analysis of race/ethnicity, sex, and coronary heart disease,” “mortality rates and incidence of cardio-metabolic disease…” are compared and contrasted among many individuals of different ethnic backgrounds, using “[epigenetic] biomarkers of aging…” along with samples of test subjects’ saliva and blood (GenomeBiology). The excerpt just cited comes from the background section of the abstract, and, as just demonstrated, one can clearly get the main idea of the entire article just from this excerpt, which furthers the point that the abstract’s function lies not only to those willing to read on, but to the casual observer who does not need to be invested or well-versed in the scientific

While the abstract serves an organizational function for the academic genre, the academic language used serves as its style. As another convention found in this genre, the language used by the author (or authors) in a scientific journal article reflects the seriousness of the piece as well as its academic tone of voice. In the conclusion of “An epigenetic clock analysis of race/ethnicity, sex, and coronary heart disease,” the vocabulary, observable cause-and-effect, and the lack of bias in the tone convey the importance of language in academia, as aging rates between men and women are described as having both “…intrinsic…insignificant associations with well-studied risk factors of CHD…” and “…extrinsic aging rates [that] tend to have significant (but weak) associations with several pro-inflammatory risk factors” (GenomeBiology). From above, it can be inferred that the language is written for the sake of specificity towards an audience more interested in the presented material than the average reader. It is also important to note that language used reflects heavily on the authors’ knowledge in regards to terminology of the subject matter, as well as literary sophistication. If the specific language is not used in the academic article, critics and other researchers among the audience may or may not choose to accredit the article with varying degrees of ethos, or seriousness in consideration of scientific citation. Clearly, academic language is a crucial and necessary convention of scientific articles and, by extension, the academic genre.

The convention of backing up an article’s argument with experimental studies (preferably a multitude) adds credibility, or ethos to the article itself, and stabilizes its place in the academic genre. When a scientific article, or any piece of writing makes an argument or takes a stance on a position, it is of course necessary to add as much credibility through citation of primary and secondary sources, and either conduct a replicable experiment or cite other similar experiments that can reinforce the said argument. Like both articles in the recent PB1, “An epigenetic clock analysis of race/ethnicity, sex, and coronary heart disease” covers a variety of relevant studies conducted by the authors and their associates. Due to the many influential variables that affect the results, it is important for the researchers, as well as the users of the data, to not make many assumptions and not draw any immediate conclusions. In the study of salivary and blood samples among different cultures and ethnicities, the results of the conducted study were “…highly robust with respect to using the smaller or larger versions of the datasets,” while the authors had to acknowledge “…a potential for selection bias…” despite its presumed minimalism (GenomeBiology). Discrepancies such as these must be acknowledged along with the rest of the data obtained if - as stated in PB1 – the article is to be given enough credibility as a piece within the academic genre, as well as qualify as a significant and contributive scientific document.

        These three commonalities are only a few of the many possible conventions that can potentially make-or-break an article in the scientific discipline of the academic genre. But with almost every genre, each convention serves as a whole to gain a favorable response among certain audiences. In the case of the science, the conventions serve as their own whole to inform and convince those skeptical among the audience, that the data and timely conclusions within both the article and study (or studies) are legitimate. For the authors (who are experts in their fields) who believe they have something to offer to the scientific community, they must be diligent in their displays of data and evidence, and work tirelessly to illustrate scientific concepts. Thus, specific guidelines (sometimes unwritten) must be followed in the form of conventions that help others confirm or disapprove work made for scientific progress in the academic genre.

Works Cited

Biomed Central, comp. "An Epigenetic Clock Analysis of Race/ethnicity, Sex, and Coronary Heart Disease." Genome Biology (2016): n. pag. Web. 23 Aug. 2016. <https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-016-1030-0>.

Unit 2 PB1: The Purpose of Psychological Research

Alex O’Brien

Prof Schranck

Writ 2

18 August 2016

Unit 2 PB1: The Purpose of Psychological Research

How you were treated as a child, and the relationship that you had with either one or both of your parents, is likely to have had a significant impact on your growth and development as an individual, as well as how you conduct yourself in relationships with others. This issue lies in the broad and widely-varied field of psychology, specifically the socio-developmental discipline. Although it may seem that this claim cannot possibly be argued against, as it makes both theoretical and hypothetical sense, it is nonetheless falsifiable in the terms of a scientific statement. In science, hypotheses and even theories conveyed through mediums such as textbooks and, for the case of this post, journal articles, aren’t likely to be taken seriously if there is insufficient evidence for or against a scientific stance. Authors, researchers, scientists and experts must backup their claims with credible evidence for the sake of scientific progress in academia. The following and soon-to-be discussed scientific articles belong in the same academic genre, but follow different methods of rhetoric as a means to offer potentially new studies and information, as well as to inform an audience interested in the developmental psychological discipline.

The purpose of the two articles is first and foremost to inform, and both do so in a similar and different fashion. In article 1, the authors objectify through statistical analysis how parent-child relationships govern later relationships with opposite-sex significant others while article 2 strictly discusses how early-life stress (ELS) affects later cognitive function and changes in neurobiological pathways. A student who reads or even skims through both articles may find many commonalities between the two that make them both belong to the same academic genre. First, a strong scientific theory tends to have few assumptions of causation as many questions in most scientific fields such as psychology, tend to have few definitive answers to broad questions. Thus, it tends to be of utmost importance that the authors attempt to incorporate others’ plausible studies to reinforce their own, as the authors in article 2 state,

“…the structure of this review is guided by research developments in humans over the past two decades…” and “…considering the plethora of studies investigating ELS using a vast range of designs, it was our objective to merge findings to highlight primary pathways of early neurobiological disruptions affecting later well-being” (Pechtel/Pizzagali).

Most academic articles need to draw from the findings from previous researchers, as well as claims that possibly reinforce the current authors’ beliefs and findings. More importantly, their findings must have credibility, or ethos in the form of replicable experimental study, attempting to draw upon possible causation. Article 1 informs its audience through the use of empirical data, in this case, statistical analysis, which serves as a form of logos intended to back up the authors’ argument with numerical findings. It also contains complex charts with seemingly complicated values assigned as statistics computed for the sake of scientific causation. Article 2 meanwhile, summarizes other researchers’ experimental data and procedures to reinforce its own claim. Although both articles convey their evidence through different means, both must follow similar guidelines in order for their research to be published and considered.

Style and organization also plays an important role in the academic genre, as it allows the audience to reconstruct the whole of the argument in specific terms, and makes readers more likely to believe in and take the article more seriously. In both articles, the sentence length is rather long, as it takes many words to connect statements to the bigger idea of the subject-at-hand. Within the phrases lies the academic word choice: intelligent with many instances of complex vocabulary meant to aim for the specific in the academic argument. In a broader sense, the arguments typically begin with broad claims of presumably wide-spread and currently-held knowledge in the respective discipline. The author then unveils a new hypothesis, theory, claim, or even a topic already held with some degree of esteem, or generally, something that must be proven. Then to support this claim, the authors must present evidence, ideally in the form of an experiment with replicable results. Even then, for example in article 1, certain experimental conditions must be followed, such as random sampling in a longitudinal study.

“Respondents constituted a random sample of children born between 1955 and 1958 in Solna, a suburb of Stockholm, Sweden. The sample is representative of Swedish children in urban areas and, on most parameters, of Swedish children in general…”

It is for this reason that new research is difficult to obtain, as many scientists and readers tend to be highly skeptical of evidence that may disprove, or even strengthen, current findings.

        As stated before, the main and implied purpose of an article in the academic genre is to present new knowledge to the scientific community and offer new insights for the sake of scientific progress. According to article 2, another reason for presentation of study occurs because “…relatively little attention has been devoted to integrating the breadth of findings concerning possible cognitive and emotional deficits associated with ELS,” or in broader terms, focus must be emphasized on areas that have not been thoroughly investigated (Pechtel/Pizzagali). Article 2 itself, outlines this purpose in its abstract. In the context of both academic journals, it may be safe to say that they serve as guidelines for presentation of research. More importantly, it must be noted that the articles are most likely to have been written by people who are already experts in their field of study, and believe that they have something to offer for the scientific community. Although it is difficult to accurately portray new information, especially towards a staunch audience reading a falsifiable article, they mainly mean to inform, especially students and researchers who require further evidence to reinforce their own beliefs and ideas.

         

Works Cited

Overbeek, Geertjan, Håkan Stattin, Ad Vermulst, Thao Ha, and Rutger C. M. E. Engels. "Parent-child Relationships, Partner Relationships, and Emotional Adjustment: A Birth-to-maturity Prospective Study."Developmental Psychology 43.2 (2007): 429-37. Web. <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17352550>.

Pechtel, Pia, and Diego A. Pizzagalli. "Effects of Early Life Stress on Cognitive and Affective Function: An Integrated Review of Human Literature."Psychopharmacology 214.1 (2010): 55-70. Web. <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20865251>.

PB2: Analysis of Noir Conventions

O’Brien, Alex

Writ 2

9 August, 2016

Schranck

PB2: Analysis of Noir Conventions

Most, if not all literature seeks to gain favor among readers who can relate to the literary piece. As a result, it is common for a novel of any genre to target a certain audience in order to acquire considerable acclaim. A well-known genre in literature, American Noir, contains specific and commonly-found aspects, or conventions, that audiences, especially during the times of the genre’s rapid rise in the ranks of popularity many years ago, could connect their own lives with. Noir itself had begun to see growth around the unpredictable times of the Great Depression and World War II, when audiences felt constant senses of insecurity. Many were left frustrated with their misfortunes, and those who perceived corruption in their lives needed acknowledgement from any source willing to sympathize with their cause. The Noir genre did not disappoint, as writers such as Raymond Chandler utilized common conventions for favorable and sympathetic responses, such as the typical hardboiled detective, substances like alcohol and cigarettes, the femme-fatale, and the pursuit of money, in his most famous work of Noir fiction, The Big Sleep.

The hardboiled detective is the key staple in all forms of the Noir genre. His traits, including the cynical outlook on life and the tough aura around him make him an excellent character that people can both look up to and down upon for his role as an anti hero. The detective in The Big Sleep, Philip Marlowe, symbolizes the inescapable fate of one who is hapless enough to endlessly search for meaning in a world where only crime, deception and selfishness forever run rampant. Raymond Chandler made Marlowe a character who, like many people, were forced to live in a world where others would take advantage of each other at every turn. As a result, Marlowe must adopt the appearance of an emotionless man who was “...neat, clean, shaved and sober, and...didn’t care who knew it” (Chandler).

Almost exclusively in the Noir genre resides the femme-fatale, the seemingly favorable deuteragonist who turns out to be the secret evil responsible for a potential downfall of the primary protagonist. Lust serves as a main motive for violence in many crime stories, which leads the main character to ruin after a fit of passion. It also serves as another convention seen and used so frequently in the genre, for it accurately represents the aspect of human desire that many never get the benefit of having or obtaining. Chandler uses this method of rhetoric to acknowledge that the present world is surrounded by gilded beauty, and to warn all individuals from falling prey to those “...worth a stare…” for they are most likely “...trouble…” (Chandler).

Finally, and most commonly, Chandler frequently illustrated the use of alcohol and cigarettes as substances that all men and women needed in order to cope with a cruel world, and the use of money as the rotten, yet only reliable means of success. The Great Depression had left so many impoverished that many felt the need to drown their sorrows away with alcohol and escape reality through heavy smoking. Thus, the slightest prospect of money made most people even more desperate than they could have imagined, and in turn, the wealthy were looked down upon as the rotten of the bunch. The implication that the author Chandler harbored such a belief is not completely invalid. When Marlowe glances off into the distance from his client’s mansion, he sees “...some of the old wooden derricks of the oilfield from which the Sternwoods made their money,” symbolically implying that they had gotten their hands dirty in exchange for a great deal of wealth (Chandler).

The deceptive aspects of society that people despised further popularized the Noir genre in the early-to-mid 20th century, due to commonly held beliefs and views of cynicism that lay in the conventions of the genre. Raymond Chandler was one of the few authors of his time to effectively use the conventions of his time to develop the Noir literary genre, as his intent to display the ever-present evils in society still reverberate today, as the genre has stood the test of time and remained popular today.

PB1: The Big Sleep and the Noir Genre

O’Brien, Alex

Writ 2

Schranck

PB1: The Big Sleep and the Noir Genre

American Noir: a cornerstone of literature, and the manifestation of America’s frustrations with society. After the 1929 Stock Market Crash, Americans felt helpless, and many turned to crime for their own sake or for that of their family’s. Crime fiction, meanwhile, had found common ground among every day and disillusioned citizens, and, utilizing past works in the mystery genre, and the blunt style of Ernest Hemingway, Noir became a distinct and popular genre in both novel and film. Writers such as Raymond Chandler became well-known for his portrayal of the hardboiled detective, and use of witty dialogue and dark humor. A staple of Noir, the novel The Big Sleep serves as the epitome of the Noir genre itself, and although Chandler incorporated a unique writing style in the form of imagery through metaphorical language, his work synchronized with the rest of the Noir genre.

In most Noir stories, the primary protagonist is the detective, a cynic and an emotionless tough-guy, secretly dissatisfied with his place in the world. Despite his frequent run-ins with the police and criminals, he lives only to complete his assignments as a private detective, using underground methods that others, such as the police, are unable to employ. Philip Marlowe, the protagonist in The Big Sleep, is an example of such.

At its heart, the Noir genre outlines the very meaning of absurdist existentialism, with the main character, the detective, attempting to save himself from his own cynicism and, to an extent, find his own true purpose. In the end, however, he is unable to make a self-fulfilling difference and realizes his own fatalistic motives.

“What did it matter where you lay once you were dead...Oil and water were the same as wind and air to you. You just slept the big sleep, not caring about the nastiness of how you died or where you fell. Me, I was part of the nastiness now…” (Chandler)

In The Big Sleep, Marlowe feels obligated to save Carmen, the daughter of his client, from getting caught up in a series of murders, only to discover that she is mentally unstable and is directly responsible for the disappearance of her sister’s husband. When Marlowe grasps the futility of his actions, the only thing he is left with is the realization that he must pick up the pieces. In turn, he begins to understand that the people who get by are those like him, willing to embrace the darkness (albeit outwardly and, by extension, unwillingly). Marlowe's blunt self-inquiry over death conveys a sense of undramatic existentialism.

Alcohol, cigarettes, and money are heavily used symbols in the Noir genre. Their use conveys acquired corruption in the characters. As the detective who has been through much and seen the world for what it is, Marlowe is a heavy smoker and drinker, and claims that his only motivation in life is payment. His attempt to forget about the incident at the novel’s conclusion, by going to a bar, is mostly unsuccessful, as he wishes to drown his sorrows away with his drink’s contents.

While The Big Sleep is one example of Noir, and Raymond Chandler is only one of the many authors who developed the genre, the novel serves as a significant piece of the genre’s puzzle, written to emphasize the futile cycle in the world of crime. Although men like Marlowe secretly wish to find a greater meaning, the impossibility of such a task prevails as innate human selfishness creates a fatalistic pathway for anyone wishing to change the outcome.